Geographically positioned at the extreme western tip of the Indonesian archipelago, the province of Aceh serves as a strategic maritime gateway connecting the Indian Ocean to the Malacca Strait. With a coastline that stretches across vast distances and waters teeming with biological wealth, the sea represents far more than an economic resource for the Acehnese people; it is a cultural space, a vibrant arena for social interaction, and a domain where religious values and customary traditions are rigorously tested and practiced.

In the cosmology of Aceh’s coastal communities, life cannot be separated from a binding order of customary law. This worldview is encapsulated in the philosophical adage, “Hukom ngon adat lagèë zat ngon sifeut”—law and custom are like substance and its attributes; they are inseparable.

Amid the sweeping currents of modernization and the increasing complexity of global natural resource management, Aceh has maintained a unique customary institution that wields factual authority over fisheries and coastal management: the Panglima Laot. This institution is an entity that has continuously evolved in response to the challenges of the ages, surviving and adapting through eras of colonialism, armed conflict, the devastating 2004 tsunami, and the contemporary crisis of global climate change.

The distinctiveness of Aceh within the Indonesian constitutional system—particularly following the enactment of Law Number 11 of 2006 regarding the Government of Aceh (UUPA)—has provided constitutional space for the formal application of customary law. This has created a landscape of legal pluralism where the state’s positive law operates in tandem with Aceh’s customary law. The Panglima Laot, which previously operated in an informal sphere, has now secured formal legitimacy through various regional legal instruments.

Historiography and evolution of Panglima Laot

The historical footprint of the Panglima Laot can be traced back to the 14th century during the era of the Samudera Pasai Kingdom. However, its structured and massive institutional form was only truly consolidated during the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607–1636) of the Aceh Darussalam Sultanate. During this golden age, Aceh was a dominant maritime power controlling the pepper and spice trade routes in the Malacca Strait. Sultan Iskandar Muda, with his sharp geopolitical vision, recognized that controlling the sea required an effective extension of the ruler’s arm down to the grassroots level in coastal areas.

The collapse of the Aceh Sultanate’s hegemony due to the prolonged Aceh War (1873–1904) and the encroachment of Dutch colonialism brought fundamental changes to the Panglima Laot institution. Snouck Hurgronje, the architect of Dutch colonial policy for Aceh, noted in his seminal work Aceh di Mata Kolonial ("Aceh in Colonial Eyes") that the political and military roles of the Panglima Laot were systematically stripped away as the sultanate’s administrative structure was dismantled.

Cut Nyak Dhien (national hero from Aceh) and her group after being arrested and exiled to Sumedang, West Java: Collectie Wereldmuseum

Yet, rather than facing extinction, the Panglima Laot transformed from a state official into a customary leader. Throughout the periods of Dutch occupation (1904–1942) and Japanese occupation (1942–1945), the Panglima Laot continued to exist as a regulator of the internal affairs of the fishing community. They focused on resolving disputes between fishermen, managing fishing grounds, and conducting customary rituals—domains that were relatively free from intervention by the colonial government.

Following Indonesia’s independence, the position of the Panglima Laot experienced a period of status ambiguity within the centralized national governance system. Limited recognition began to emerge in 1977 through district-level decrees, followed by provincial recognition in 1990 through a Regional Regulation (Peraturan Daerah). However, the true momentum for revitalization occurred in the wake of the catastrophic 2004 Tsunami and the signing of the Helsinki Peace Agreement in 2005.

The tsunami, which devastated Aceh’s coastlines, forced a massive social restructuring. In the chaos of the post-disaster period, the Panglima Laot emerged as a critical actor, organizing survivors, facilitating the distribution of aid, and serving as a partner for international aid agencies when local government infrastructure was paralyzed. This crucial role restored the dignity and relevance of the Panglima Laot in the eyes of both the public and the state.

This resurgence culminated when the Law on the Government of Aceh (UUPA) No. 11 of 2006 provided a strong legal foundation for the existence of customary institutions. Specifically, Qanun Aceh No. 9 of 2008 concerning the Development of Customary Life and Traditions, and Qanun Aceh No. 10 of 2008 concerning Customary Institutions, formally recognized the Panglima Laot as the authority empowered to regulate customary sea law and resolve maritime disputes.

Hukôm Adat Laôt; The substance of Panglima Laot’s rules

The core of the Panglima Laot’s existence lies in the enforcement of Hukôm Adat Laôt. This law consists of a set of unwritten rules—conventions—that are strictly adhered to by the fishing community. It regulates the order of fishing (meupayang), social norms, and environmental protection.

One of the most prominent characteristics of this customary law is the establishment of "prohibited days" for going to sea (hari-hari pantang laot), specifically on Fridays. This prohibition serves a dual function: it ensures the fulfillment of religious obligations and provides a "biological resting period" for the marine ecosystem. When accumulated, the total number of prohibited days can reach up to two months per year, significantly reducing the pressure of exploitation on fish resources.

Uroe pantang meulaot, day of abstinence from fishing in Acehnese customary society: iqbaljeumala.blogspot.com

Beyond regulating the timing of fishing, customary law also dictates the methods that may be used at sea. These rules demonstrate an advanced understanding of the importance of ecosystem preservation. Destructive fishing gears are strictly forbidden. This includes the use of fish bombs and poisons, which kill all biota, including juveniles, and destroy coral reefs. The use of trawl nets (pukat harimau) is also prohibited in coastal areas due to their potential to damage the seabed. Similarly, the use of electric currents, which kill fish en masse without selecting for size or species, is banned. The extraction of live coral or the cutting of mangrove trees in coastal zones is also classified as a prohibited act because it threatens the balance of the environment.

The customary law enforced within the Panglima Laot system establishes firm sanctions for anyone who violates these rules. The process of determining sanctions is conducted through a customary assembly (sidang adat), where customary leaders and related parties deliberate to ensure that the decision is fair and educational. The primary objective of these sanctions is not merely to punish, but to foster awareness so that fishermen continue to maintain the sustainability of the sea and social harmony within the coastal community.

One form of sanction applied is the confiscation of the catch. Fishermen caught going to sea on a prohibited day or using banned fishing methods will lose their entire catch. These confiscated goods are typically distributed to mosques, orphans, or local social institutions.

In addition to the confiscation of the catch, there are sanctions in the form of a temporary ban on sailing. The perpetrator may be prohibited from going to sea for three to seven days, depending on the severity of the offense. For fishermen who rely on daily income for their livelihood, this sanction carries significant economic consequences and is expected to provide a deterrent effect.

In more serious cases or for repeated violations, social sanctions may be imposed. These can range from ostracization to expulsion from the Lhok (customary coastal territory). The perpetrator’s boat may even be banned from docking in the area. Such social sanctions represent the harshest form of reprimand, as they strike at the honor and survival of the perpetrator within the coastal community.

The concept of Seumaloe and mangrove protection

The ecological concern of the Panglima Laot is not limited to the water but extends to the coastal ecosystem. There are customary rules prohibiting the cutting of trees along the shoreline, river mouths, and mangrove forests. This regulation is grounded in local wisdom known as Seumaloe—the belief that fish will approach the shore and reproduce only if there is lush vegetation to serve as a shelter or nursery ground.

An Acehnese proverb reinforces this ethic: "Koh bak kayee hanjeut, tanom bak kayee nyan geuyue" (Cutting trees is forbidden; planting trees is encouraged).

Scientifically, this prohibition has proven effective in preventing coastal abrasion and maintaining the health of estuarine ecosystems, which are vital for the life cycles of commercial fish species.

The role of Panglima Laot in maritime security

Aceh, facing international waters directly, is highly vulnerable to Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing. Foreign vessels from various countries, such as Thailand, Vietnam, and India, frequently violate Indonesian territorial waters, particularly those of Aceh. In this context, the Panglima Laot plays a role as the "eyes and ears" of the state through a system of Community-based Surveillance.

Fishermen are required to report any suspicious activity at sea to the Panglima Laot. This information is then forwarded hierarchically to law enforcement officials.

It is important to note that the Panglima Laot does not possess police authority to arrest, detain, or confiscate foreign vessels within Indonesian waters, as vigilantism is prohibited. The authority for law enforcement—arrest and investigation—remains fully in the hands of the Indonesian Navy (TNI Angkatan Laut), the Water and Air Police (Polairud), and the PSDKP (Marine and Fishery Resources Supervision).

Therefore, the effectiveness of Aceh’s maritime security depends heavily on the synergy between the Panglima Laot and state apparatus. In many cases, intelligence reports from the Panglima Laot fisherman network have been the key to successful operations in capturing foreign vessels by Republic of Indonesia Warships or police patrol boats. The Panglima Laot in Aceh stands as an example of the successful integration of traditional value systems into modern governance.